Relationship Between Ontology Epistemology And Methodology Philosophy Essay

Relationship Between Ontology Epistemology And Methodology Philosophy Essay There is no doubt that one can only grasp the sociological knowledge when examining the process of thoughts that stand behind every single research in social science. In essence, the ontological and epistemological positions represent the basis of the work of political scientists. On the surface, these positions are often not apparent but they can be demonstrated by the process of methodology. Therefore, it is, to a large degree, necessary to apprehend the connection between the foundations of research. The first part of this essay will focus on the definition of the these key concepts of research: ontology, epistemology and methodology. Furthermore, the essay will examine and evaluate the connection between the ontological and epistemological positions, such as Positivism and Interpretivism. Secondly, the essay will concentrate on the analysis of the relationship between these three stances in terms of social research. It will be argued that there is a close and logical relationship between the ontology and epistemology but also methodology, however some other perspectives will be take into account as well. Ontology and epistemology play very significant role in philosophy but also in the work of political scientists because both terms are used in relation to the discussion of theoretical issues in their thesis. It can be argued that these theoretical positions are fundamental to their process of research and scientists inclination to subject as they shape the approach to theory and the methods that are employed by social scientist (Marsh Furlong, 2010: p. 184). It is vital to recognize that both ontology and epistemology are mainly based on the researchers beliefs and personal persuasion about the conception of world and have certain methodological consequences (Hay, 2002: p. 61). The first term ontology can be used to relate to the scientific and philosophical theory of being. It primarily deals with the elementary structure of the world and what exactly does it signify to exist in that world. In other words, ontology is concerned with the question: is there a real world out there that is independent of our knowledge of it? (Marsh Furlong, 2010: p. 185).1 To point out, there are two distinct ontological positions: firstly, foundationalism postulates that the real world exists as a mosaic which is consisted of various substances existing in the world, individually of human experience, knowledge and thought; secondly, anti-foundationalism predicates that the real world does not occur independently of our knowledge, however it is socially constructed by human actors (Grix, 2004: p. 61). It must be noted that the ontological issues have substantial theoretical significance. To a certain extent, ontological matters are inextricably linked with the epistemological foundation of research. The second term epistemology represents the theory of knowledge and its epistemological assumption is focused on the study of the nature of the world and how we know what we know (Marsh Furlong, 2010: p. 185), so it is directed at knowledge-gathering process (Grix, 2004: p. 63). In case of epistemology, there are also two major epistemological positions being associated to foundationalist and anti-foundationalist ontology: firstly, positivist epistemology2 views the world as existing independently of knowledge of it (Marsh Furlong, 2010: p. 190), therefore the objectivity is achievable due to the fact that the things are perceived by individuals in the identical manner; secondly, interpretivist epistemology3 concerns with the disputability of objective or value-free observation which is largely influenced by the personal perceptions and social constructions of the world. The key aspect of this argument is that the essence of the world is illuminated by various actors whose interpreta tions are construed by the observer, therefore this double hermeneutic4 results in limited objectivity (Grix, 2004: p. 81).5 The term methodology arises from the ontological and epistemological position of the researcher, therefore it is more than evident that between ontology, epistemology and methodology is close interconnection. Methodology is mainly associated with the design of the research, and the approach to data analysis. Furthermore, this term is generally employed to refer to the whole process of data collection in the research. It is indispensable to realize that certain types of epistemologies require the specific use of survey methods (Hay, 2002: p. 63).6 ____________________________________________________ 1 In terms of political realm, the ontological question can be formulate as: what is the nature of the social and political reality to be investigated? (Hay, 2002: p. 61) 2 Positivism results from the empiricist tradition of natural science and emphasizes that there is analogy between social science and natural science; hence according to positivists view, the relationship between social phenomena may be formed, using theory to generate hypotheses which can be tested by direct observation (Marsh Furlong, 2010: p. 194). From this follows, that the real world exists and represents an objective entity, therefore it is possible to perceive the reality around us, independently of our knowledge of it. In positivism, quantitative research tools 7 are involved in order to be able to generalize and replicate collected data. It is important to underline that the main aim of positivists is to explain a particular behavior rather than the meaning of this behavior (Marsh Furlong, 2010: p. 194). 3 On the other hand, Interpretivism (or Relativism) is characterized by its denial of objective real world. According to interpretivists, the real world does not exist as it is constructed through the interactions of individuals (Grix, 2004: p. 83). Additionally, it is impossible to use a pure observation in order to perceive social phenomena, mainly because they are dependent on the personal interpretation. So it might be said that every observation affects what is observed thus objectivity cannot be maintained considering that researcher are not detached from the subjectà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Grix, 2004: p. 83). In interpretism, qualitative research methods8 are applied to create a more precise understanding of social behavior and clearly ignore aspects, such as the meaning and explanation of that behavior. 4 The term double hermeneutic relates to the act of interpreting an actors perception and interpretation (Interpretation 1) of his or her situation in a particular context (Interpretation 2): effectively an interpretation of an interpretation (Grix, 2002: p. 81); therefore this double interpretation is less unbiased and objective than the initial interpretation. The Analysis of Relationship between Ontology, Epistemology and Methodology It is essential to highlight that the relationship between the key terms ontology, epistemology and methodology is directional in the way that ontology logically precedes epistemology which logically precedes methodology (Hay, 2002: p. 63). Furthermore, these concepts should be set apart considering that they are inextricably linked (Grix, 2004: p. 60). According to Marsh and Furlong, ontology and epistemology represent a skin not a sweater therefore it is clearly impossible to put on and take off these research foundations whenever the research chooses (Marsh Furlong, 2010: p. 184). This reflects the methodological consequences of different positions and indicates that researchers demand various positions in order account for their selected method. Nevertheless, the ontological positions are very significant in terms of interrelationship between epistemology and methodology, thus it could be said that certain ontological positions result in epistemological positions. It is worth noting that the foundationalists beliefs (ontology) represent a premise for positivist or a realist traditions (epistemology) of research whereas the anti-foundationalists views result in an interpretivist position. This implies that there is strong link between all components of research, therefore it is vital to approach these major blocks of research col lectively. According to Mason, the role of epistemology lies in the fact that it leads to creation of knowledge and explanations about the ontological components of social world (Grix, 2004: p. 64). Moreover, it is substantial to realize that there might be more than one particular epistemology, thus at the same time they will not be analogous or coincident with their own ontological position. However, it is clear that various epistemological positions require to employ a divers methodology, therefore it can be argued that there is dependency between epistemology and methodology.7 To a certain extent, this means that different ontological and epistemological positions can result in completely diverse views of the same type of social phenomena. Another relevant point is that Spencer raises a very apt question: how can we have a theory about what knowledge is, without some presupposition about the nature of the knowledge? (Marsh Furlong, 2010: p. 188) Therefore, in Spencers opinion, ontology is prior to epistemology so that knowledge can be logically generated from their close relationship. While these two concepts are narrowly related, they have to be kept separate in order to start the research from a persons view of the world (Grix, 2004: p. 66).8 Conclusion In conclusion, it is extremely crucial to recognize that these three theoretical positions play a pivotal role in a set of conceptions concerning the research theory. Due to the high level of generality, ontology is a type of concept that is rarely utilized. However, epistemology and methodology are used more frequently. Most importantly, otology, epistemology and methodology are interlinking and dependent on each other and together denotes the most important contrasts between various ways of knowing. Finally, Marsh and Furlong maintain a position that there is an evident interdependence between epistemology and methodology, also Hay sees a directional dependence in relation to ontology, epistemology and methodology. However Smith advocates that it is not possible to create a hierarchy between these terms because all of them are narrowly interrelated together. ____________________________________________________ 5 In a sense, epistemology can be employed in the connection with positivist epistemology which means that the knowledge claims basically are grounded on the universal principles of the natural science. The most crucial point is, therefore, that the ontological assumptions made about the nature of the reality and world, in some way, have far-reaching consequences for the chosen epistemological position. 6 In case of a positivist epistemology, the research methods are in form of surveys and questionnaires in order to be analyzed quantitatively. Whereas, a interpretists epistemology uses methods, such as participant observations and unsystematic interviews to gain quantitative analysis and data. 7 In Brymans view, there is nothing inherent in the properties of the different methodologies which prevents their use by researchers who are operating from different epistemological positions (Read Marsh, 2002: p. 232-3). 8 On the other hand, it is crucial to highlight that some scholars, such as Smith, consider ontology and epistemology as two interconnected realms. According Smiths view, neither ontology nor epistemology [is] prior to the other, but instead [he] sees the two of them as mutually and inextricably interrelated (March Furlong, 2010: p. 188). From this statement follows that it is not possible to undermine the importance of ontology at the expense of epistemology or the other way around, therefore ontology cannot be considered as prior to epistemology. Appendix Appendix 1: The Definition of Qualitative and Quantitative Data in Social Research 7 When qualitative data is adopted in social science as a way for conducting an experiment or analysis, its aim is principally to create a complete and detailed description for a particular fact. Qualitative data is presented in form of words and images. In this case, the knowledge claim can be supported by individuals who develop subjective and direct concern with the meaning of involved experience in order to understand the complexity of views. Therefore, it is important for researcher to become subjectively engaged in the subject matter (Grix, 2004: p. 117-8). 8 The quantitative data has a very straightforward purpose, to classify features, count them, construct statistical model in an attempt to explain what is observed. For that reason, quantitative data involves numbers and statistics. This type of data reflects a need to explore causes that affect certain results, thus the assumption is also based on thorough observation and measurement of objective reality in the world. The researcher, in this instance, tends to be objective in terms of the concerns (Grix, 2004: p. 122). However, as it follows from the description of qualitative and quantitative data, the major difference between these two types of data lies in their distinct functions. It is quite essential to realize the fact that qualitative data is related to research that inclines to use an inductive approach to develop theory; therefore the researchers gather the data from the study of a particular sample of people and maintain an understanding of social behavior as it arises from this data. On the contrary, quantitative data is involved in research that is directed to deductive approach, using predominantly hypothesis and examining it in order to prove true for the general sample (McBride Schostak, 2011).

When Norma Won a Union :: Economics Economy Governmental Essays

When Norma Won a Union The movie Norma Rae depicted a town where the people worked within a capitalist economic system. While the textile mill may have been the only major job in town, the workers could have left without being under physical threat from the company. Their free time was their own as was their salary at the end of the day. The workers were paid by the hour so that the company did not pay them based on how much product was produced during the term of labor but how much time was spent at work. Because of this, the company had to have other ways of assuring that a specific amount of goods were produced by the end of every day. The assembly line, created by John Ford for this very purpose, was one way of managing the rate of production, in addition, they hired managers to do spot-checking and such as the workers were not the ones in charge of the organization of the production process. Unlike in a feudal society, the workers sold themselves to the employers and if the employers weren't happy with their work or didn't need them anymore they could fire them and the workers would then have to enter the labor market again. One could argue that though the textile mill was the only major employer, the workers still had a choice of employer because they could have become self-employed or have left town. The company did not seem to have any direct control over the real estate in town. By not spending any money on maintaining the equipment in the factory, buying protective earphones for the workers, installing a Kotex machine, allowing workers to take a break when they needed to, or supplying health care benefits the company cut down on their expenses and increased their profits. Because the unionization of the workplace could have resulted in an increase in the cost of labor, the textile factory attempted to stop the workers in the factory from joining the TWUA(textile workers union of America) by various methods. They used economic incentives to try to keep Norma Rae from complaining and bringing up new workers' rights issues every day. By giving

Week final assignment

For each article, address the following: a. Create a bibliographic citation in PAP format for each article b. Summarize the article, addressing the following questions: I. Who? I. What was done? Iii. How was it done? Iv. What were the findings? V. What contributions has this research made? C. Describe in a meaningful way, how the article contributed to your knowledge and understanding about your selected research topic. D. Critique the article: I. Is this article well-written and well-researched? Ii. Did it/does it lead to new ideas and findings in the selected researched area? E.Synthesize your understanding of the article with what you have learned throughout the course to describe the new learning that took place as a result of reading and thinking critically about the article. A. ADD. (1997, Par 06). Dayton Daily News. Retrieved from http://search. Prostitutes/ This article was published in the Dayton Daily News. The main focus of this article was the simple definition of what At tention deficit hyperactivity disorder is. It explained that it individuals with this disorder are unable to pay attention and are very impulsive. It states that children with this disorder often do not do well in school.No matter what their intelligence level is, they still will not do well in school. The article listed many symptoms that include having short attention spans, forgetful, do not meme to listen well, do not pay attention to details and individuals also fail to finish things they Start. This article listed many symptoms that I were not aware were part of it. At the same time many of the symptoms seem to describe many children in preschool and kindergarten age. Which it surprised me that the article stated that children need to be diagnosed before the age of 7.But I was glad to see that some of the symptoms have to create a real hardship in the lives before the individual can be diagnosed. This article was helpful in the sense that it was very simple and straight to the point. It loud be good to have as a reference in order to maybe talk to parents if problems become apparent with a child. B. Sorrows, K. F. (2009). ADD: urban teachers' knowledge, beliefs and classroom practice. (Order No. 3361083, University of Massachusetts Boston). Prosiest Dissertations and Theses, , 234-n/a. Retrieved from http://search. Prosiest. Mom/ deceive/305140059? Cacao anti=32521. (305140059). This article was written by Karen Sorrows in 2009. This article talked about the importance of teacher intervention with students that have ADD. These students were from the urban area where medical intervention is less likely to append. The article also discusses how a teacher may juggle the needs of students with ADD and the others students who do not have the disorder. It talks about the interrelationships between urban elementary school teachers use and effectiveness of research based interventions for ADD.The study showed teachers' knowledge of ADD and the support they recei ve from the school districts. This was a very useful article in the way that it showed that there are support groups and other teachers deal with students with ADD. It allows a community for a teacher to go to and get any idea and or help if they deed it. It helps put in perspective that there are many families and children that are affected by this disorder that are unable to seek medical help and it is up to the teacher to try to make the best of the situation for the children sake. C. Dovish, S, van, d. O.. Wires, R.W. , print, P. J. , & M. (2013). What part of working memory is not working in ADD? Short-term memory, the central executive and effects of reinforcement. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41 901-17. Did:http://DXL. Did. Rover. MM 0802-013-9729-9 This article was written by several authors that included Dovish, Van, Wires, ND Primps. This article talks about the defects in the working memory that are common with ADD. In children that have ADD their working memory is what is affected the most. Both cognitive and motivational deficits are aberrant working memory performance.This is a good article in the sense that it helps individuals understand the inside working of the mind of a child who has ADD. It helps show the memory that it affects and controls. From the visual to the short term memory, there is more to ADD then we know. I found this article very interesting and it is very informative on the details of he workings of the brain of an individual with ADD. 5. Summarize the overall findings of your research including the summary, description, critique, and synthesis completed for each individual article. A.In the article that I read I found that there are fewer children that are affected with ADD than prior thought. It is said that only 5% of children are affected with ADD. It also gave me some insight on what some of the symptoms are. Even though some seem very extreme, the symptoms are very treatable. Most children with ADD are able to b ecome functioning parts of society once they become adults. It is said that all children no matter what their intelligence level maybe still have problems academically in one way or another. I also learned that many parents blame the school systems for their child's ADD problems.They blame the teachers for not being able to â€Å"teach† properly or looking for a way out of teaching their children. ADD is a genetic disorder that runs throughout the family. 6. Describe two applications this research and your deepened understanding of this educational psychology topic have to the following: a. Academic goals I. My research has really opened my eyes on how children with ADD feel and hat they may go through. It is a very sad and yet very challenging. Plan to try to keep up on all the information that I can in order to make sure that each student gets the best education possible.I know that some children with ADD can be difficult in the classroom and with other students, but it is my job as an educator to stay current with all that is happening and any new teaching techniques. Taking extra classes and helping parents as much as I can is always an option. I will also learn to distinguish the difference between a child acting out and a child who may have ADD b. Personal goals I. I know that what have researched will help in my future teaching career. I plan on teaching middle school history and children at that age can be very trying at times.I can only hope that the proper steps were taken in prior years through possible academic assessments and other symptoms to get children the medical help that they need in order to do well through the middle school years. Can only hope that if by chance I do encounter a child with ADD I have learned the proper tools in order to give the child the best education I can. C. Current role I. In my current role as a mother, wife and a full time employee I can see that I eave seen many individuals with many (but not all and not c onsecutively) symptoms of ADD and to be honest it can be very frustrating at times.

Profile of Ajax Greek Hero of the Trojan War

Ajax is known for his size and strength, so much so that the tag line of a popular cleaning product was Ajax: Stronger than dirt. There were actually two Greek heroes in the Trojan War named Ajax. The other, physically much smaller Ajax is the Oilean Ajax or Ajax the Lesser. Ajax the Greater is depicted holding a large shield that is compared with a wall. Family Ajax the Greater was the son of the king of the island of Salamis and the half-brother of Teucer, an archer on the Greek side in the Trojan War. Teucers mother was Hesione, sister of the Trojan King Priam. The mother of Ajax was Periboea, daughter of Alcathus, son of Pelops, according to Apollodorus III.12.7. Teucer and Ajax had the same father, Argonaut and Calydonian boar hunter Telamon. The name Ajax (Gk. Aias) is said to be based on the appearance of an eagle (Gk. aietos) sent by Zeus in response to Telamons prayer for a son. Ajax and the Achaeans Ajax the Greater was one of the suitors of Helen, for which reason he was obliged by the Oath of Tyndareus to join the Greek forces in the Trojan War. Ajax contributed 12 ships from Salamis to the Achaean war effort. Ajax and Hector Ajax and Hector fought in single combat. Their fight was ended by the heralds. The two heroes then exchanged gifts, with Hector receiving a belt from Ajax and giving him a sword. It was with the belt of Ajax that Achilles dragged Hector. Suicide When Achilles was killed, his armor was to be awarded to the next greatest Greek hero. Ajax thought it should go to him. Ajax went mad and tried to kill his comrades when the armor was awarded to Odysseus, instead. Athena intervened by making Ajax think cattle were his former allies. When he realized he had slaughtered the herd, he committed suicide as his only honorable end. Ajax used the sword Hector had given him to kill himself. The story of the madness and disgraced burial of Ajax appears in the Little Iliad. See: Ajaxs Burial in Early Greek Epic, by Philip Holt; The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 113, No. 3 (Autumn, 1992), pp. 319-331. In Hades Even in his afterlife in the Underworld Ajax was still angry and wouldnt speak with Odysseus.